Hadronization: From Free Quarks to Composite Particles

Hadronization is the process by which quarks and gluons—originally free in a high-energy state such as a quark-gluon plasma—combine to

Gluons: The Strong Force Carriers Holding Quarks Together

Gluons are the fundamental particles that mediate the strong nuclear force in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). They are responsible for binding

Color Charge: The Source of the Strong Force

Color charge is a fundamental property of quarks and gluons in quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the theory that describes the strong

Bottom Quark: The Heavyweight Known for “Beauty” Physics

The bottom quark, also called the beauty quark, is a third-generation quark in the Standard Model. It is much heavier

Tau Leptons: Heavy and Unstable Electron Cousins

The tau lepton (τ) is a third-generation lepton, similar to the electron and muon, but significantly heavier—about 3,500 times more

Z Boson: The Neutral Carrier of the Weak Force

The Z boson is a neutral particle that, along with the W⁺ and W⁻ bosons, mediates the weak nuclear force.

W Bosons: Massive Carriers of the Weak Force

W bosons are fundamental particles that mediate the weak nuclear force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. Unlike

Higgs Mechanism: How Particles Acquire Mass

The Higgs mechanism is a fundamental process in particle physics that explains how particles gain mass through the breaking of

Supersymmetry (SUSY): A Symmetry Between Fermions and Bosons

Supersymmetry (SUSY) is a theoretical framework in particle physics that proposes a symmetry between fermions and bosons—the two fundamental classes

Grand Unification Theories: Unifying Nature’s Fundamental Forces

Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) aim to merge the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces into a single, more fundamental force described