Blackbody Radiation: The Perfect Thermal Emission

Blackbody radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an idealized object (a blackbody) that perfectly absorbs all incident radiation

Thermal Reservoirs: Ideal Heat Sources and Sinks

A thermal reservoir is a theoretical concept in thermodynamics used to model a body that can absorb or supply an

Carnot Efficiency: The Ultimate Limit for Heat Engine Performance

Carnot efficiency defines the maximum possible efficiency that any heat engine can achieve when operating between two thermal reservoirs —

Otto Cycle: The Thermodynamic Basis of Internal Combustion Engines

The Otto cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that models the operation of spark-ignition internal combustion engines, such as those found

Thermodynamic Cycles: Repeating Paths of Energy Conversion

A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes that takes a system through different states and eventually returns it

Quasistatic Processes: Infinitely Slow and Always Near Equilibrium

A quasistatic process is an idealized thermodynamic process that occurs infinitely slowly, allowing the system to remain in or very

Entropy: The Measure of Molecular Disorder

Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity that reflects the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. An increase in entropy

Enthalpy: Total Heat Content at Constant Pressure

Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity that represents the total heat content of a system when the pressure is constant. It

Latent Heat: Hidden Energy of Phase Changes

Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released by a substance during a phase change (such as melting, boiling, or

Critical Temperature: The Liquid Limit

The critical temperature of a substance is the maximum temperature at which it can exist in the liquid state, regardless